Global Warming and all that stuff.

As for journalism, I keep telling myself it can rise to the level of its responsibility. It can. Really. I'm sure of it.

Just don't ask me for proof.:(

There are always journalists who rise to the best of expectations, and that's in the most general sense throughout history. I have far more respect for them than for any number of blissed-out martyrs.

Journalism, unfortunately, is a business. It sells entertainment to proles, and influence over them to the optimes. At a good price - they have the threat of swinging the influence another way, after all. On the other hand, best not push it too much, that pen-and-sword thing is strictly metaphorical. The pen doesn't, in practice, measure up to the fist, boot, club or rigged action in law. Revenge may follow, but why invite injury in the first place? When you can make a very comfortable living serving the powers-that-be?
 
Heh, I am hoping to have 5+ children if I can afford it! I am very greedy.

Don't screw yourself out of a seat at the table. The inter-relationship between you and your first pair of off-spring may have some influence on your decison (one's a breeze; two introduce more variables).;)

You might want to read up a bit on population growth before buying that six-bedroom home.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population
 
According to the similarities in all of our genetics wasn't there some sort of bottleneck that took place where the human species was almost wiped out? I don't see that reflected on the wikipedia graph.
 
That's because it was 70,000 years ago, and the graph only goes back 10,000 years.

Tricky blighters, graphs.

http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2007/06/curve-manipulation-lesson-2/

Beck’s curve shows a warm phase 400 BC and the next one 1200 AD – that’s 1600 years difference, so it just about fits. (I’m not endorsing his curve, by the way, I have no idea where it comes from - I'm just playing along with it for the sake of the argument). So the next warm phase should be in the year – oooops... 2700 or 2800? Hang on, how come it looks like the current warmth fits so nicely into the cycle? Shouldn't we be right in the coldest phase? Now I see it... two little lines across the x-axis indicate that the axis has been broken there – tick-marks after the break are in 200-year intervals and before the break in 400-year intervals, and there’s also a gap of 200 missing years there. So that’s how we make the current global warming fit past climate cycles – it’s so easy!

Priceless.
 
According to the similarities in all of our genetics wasn't there some sort of bottleneck that took place where the human species was almost wiped out? I don't see that reflected on the wikipedia graph.

Actually, I hoped you'd note the cumulative effect of population growth more than our humble origins.

I don't have the expertise to document the current rate of increase of human population compared to the proposed increase in worldwide food supplies and improvement in general global economic performance, but I suspect a graph including all three would show the population line starting to look a bit more vertical than the others in the not too distant future.

Add in AGW and make your own conclusions.
 
You do realize the warmer the area the higher the tropopause is in the majority of cases right?

Other things being equal, it will be. But isn't the relevant point about high clouds the fact that they're at the top, not their absolute height?

Heating has a very large impact on cloud cover and developement. While you are correct the driving force in weather is differential heating in the earth atmosphere.

That suggests to me that warming throughout a particular air-column would have little or no effect on cloud-development within that column.

Besides the melting of the polar caps will add much more WV into the atmosphere because sublimation is not nearly as efficient as evaporation. RH is directly related to WV.

Resorbtion and precipitation are directly related to relative humidity, so I don't see that this water vapour will be recruited beyond the short-term, which implies not beyond the local region.

Is there actually any evidence of altered cloud-cover given the warming during the last two decades? If cloud-cover has changed, it clearly hasn't changed enough to counteract the warming, so it's no white knight riding to the rescue anyway.
 
The Population Bomb is often cited as a reason why AGW is a hyped problem, so I guess population fits into "all that stuff".

The bomb has not gone off in the medium-term primarily because the energy-input of food-production has soared, something that Ehrlich didn't take sufficient account of. That's been possible because of cheap energy, much of it derived from oil. Fertilisers, pesticides, mechanisation and cheap transport have made it possible to bring previously sub-marginal land into production, and to produce surpluses from previously marginal land. It has yet to be demonstrated that this is sustainable.

Peak Oil is likely to be the killer in this case. Energy prices tend to follow the oil-price, increasing the cost of fertilisers and pesticides, and mechanisation is directly dependent on oil. With Peak Oil, all the old bets are off.
 
Other things being equal, it will be. But isn't the relevant point about high clouds the fact that they're at the top, not their absolute height?
Big dif between cloud types here.

That suggests to me that warming throughout a particular air-column would have little or no effect on cloud-development within that column.
Air moves seriously eastward. The planet turns, air not as much. Layers stratify. Differing energy and moisture contents -> weather.

Resorbtion and precipitation are directly related to relative humidity, so I don't see that this water vapour will be recruited beyond the short-term, which implies not beyond the local region.
/

Air masses commonly move 500-3000 miles then dump rain or snow. If it goes up it comes down.

But the Big Quest? Do we have more cloud cover say over the last 30 years? The NASA ref I provided earlier indicated this question was not currently answerable.
 
And a few questions in return.

1. What part of "satellite temperature measurements" do you not understand?
2. What part of "a thousand-square-mile ice shelf collapsed into the sea" do you not get?
3. What part of "the ice coverage in the Arctic is lower than the models predicted, and correcting the models for this indicates that the Arctic will be ice-free in the summer twenty years sooner than we thought" do you not comprehend?

4. Why do you think it has any effect at all? (Affect is not a noun, unless you are discussing psychiatry.)
5. What do you contend that effect might be?
6. Why do you think that effect might take place? (By what mechanism?)
7. Considering that the Sun has passed solar maximum and is currently approaching solar minimum, how do you account for the fact that the temperature continues to rise?
8. What evidence do you present to argue that cosmic rays have varied in or out of phase with climate?

9. What is lambda, other than a Greek letter sometimes used as an operand in mathematics?
10. Why do you think lambda is important in this instance?

11. What are GCMs?
12. Considering that (if you are referring to some particular class of climate model) they were made by the most experienced and knowledgeable people in the discipline, what evidence do you present that they should not be?

Sure. No problem.

1) How confident should be we be that ground surface temperature measurements are accurate and done to recognized standards?
1. What part of "satellite temperature measurements" do you not understand?
2. What part of "a thousand-square-mile ice shelf collapsed into the sea" do you not get?
3. What part of "the ice coverage in the Arctic is lower than the models predicted, and correcting the models for this indicates that the Arctic will be ice-free in the summer twenty years sooner than we thought" do you not comprehend?
The question was not concerning satellite temperature measurements, so can it be assumed your assertion is ground surface temperature measurements are questionable?
I don't find ice shelf collapsing catastrophic, why do you?

Actually the prediction is thirty years sooner. I wasn't aware untested published predictions is considered science. Is that the “new” scientific method? “…..the Arctic WILL be ice-free….” is a pretty bold statement (and speculative) based on what evidence?. Can it be falsified? Why would the models need “correcting” if they are reliable? A more realistic phrase may be “…..fudging the models”. What it does indicate is the uncertainty, the bane of any scientist, of climate models. Trending can be a fun game.


2) What affect does cosmic rays and solar magnetic activity have on cloud formation, and ultimately, climate?
4. Why do you think it has any effect at all? (Affect is not a noun, unless you are discussing psychiatry.)

Thanks for pointing out that most egregious grammatical error. I assure you it was just an oversight. Had you not pointed that out there's no telling how much confusion would have ensued. I asked a question. Obviously your contention is the sun (sun spots are but one) and cosmic influences have little effect on climate, correct? Considering the sun is our only source of life sustaining heat, it's a bit absurd to discount in my humble opinion.
Factors outside sunspot numbers: sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIt760405/PDF/2005MmSAI..76..969G.pdf

Cosmic Rays and Radiative Budgets:
phys.huji.ac.il/%7Eshaviv/articles/2004JA010866.pdf

Paleoclimate:
gsajournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&issn=1052-5173&volume=013&issue=07&page=0004
Now, you can find at RealClimate, this:
realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2006/10/taking-cosmic-rays-for-a-spin/
“The working hypothesis of the cosmic ray crowd is that the (weak) correlations between low clouds and cosmic rays are causal (i.e. a cosmic ray increase - due to a solar magnetic field weakening - causes low clouds to increase, cooling the planet). The 'spin' on this new paper is that this has been demonstrated, and is significant, and furthermore, is responsible for the 20th Century rise in global temperatures. But let's look carefully at what is required in this logic:”
Read the entire entry. To these guys, everything is “spin” that disagrees with their views. That was a response to Svensmark's theoretical work, including the usual empty rhetoric coming from RC. Now with the SKY experiment published in early 2007 to verify their (Svensmark et al) hypothesis, something CO2 AGW proponents have yet to demonstrate experimentally, RC is silent.
Sky Experiment:
spacecenter.dk/research/sun-climate/experiments/the-sky-experiment/sky

5. What do you contend that effect might be?
I don’t contend anything, why are you predisposed to the notion I did? Research suggests the effect is strong however.

6. Why do you think that effect might take place? (By what mechanism?)
By reviewing the literature, the answer is self-evident.

7. Considering that the Sun has passed solar maximum and is currently approaching solar minimum, how do you account for the fact that the temperature continues to rise?
As noted above, sunspots are not the only solar mechanisms affecting climate. Also, from data I have been able to gather, “average” (a misnomer) global temperatures have not risen since 1998, but actually are trending downward. See U.N. WMO
8. What evidence do you present to argue that cosmic rays have varied in or out of phase with climate?
See above.

3) What is the true lambda of earth?
9. What is lambda, other than a Greek letter sometimes used as an operand in mathematics?
Seeing how this is a thread about global warming, I assumed you would know climate sensitivity is referred to as the Greek symbol “lambda”.

10. Why do you think lambda is important in this instance?
Climate sensitivity is perhaps at the core of the entire GW debate. Hansen, Annan, Stern, IPCC....all use their own value for lambda. Take your pick. If moderate climate change is not to your liking in the model, no problem. Just increase climate sensitivity up and viola!, instant doomsday, in 100 years of course. So, I ask again. What is the true value for lambda?


4) Are GCM's to be relied upon for projected climate changes?
11. What are GCMs?
12. Considering that (if you are referring to some particular class of climate model) they were made by the most experienced and knowledgeable people in the discipline, what evidence do you present that they should not be?
GCM is Global Circulation Model. How much evidence do you require?
oregonstate.edu/~blaustea/pdfs/LawlerGCB_1191.pdf
scoop.co.nz/stories/SC0706/S00026.htm
uni-giessen.de/physik/theorie/theorie3/publications/PRL-2002-1.pdf
Do you have evidence suggesting otherwise?

The climate has always changed. There will always be winners in some parts and losers in others. Why is this considered unusual?

There are two glaring problems you have to ignore:
1. Add more CO2, retain more heat.
2. It's getting hotter.
As I have said repeatedly, the physics of the situation are undeniable, and the data are undeniable. The details of how much and how soon are matters of debate; but any first-year physics student can tell you it's going to get hotter still, and it's going to do it sooner than we can do anything about it.

I'll also point out, since y'all are fussing about it again, that we could have got started ten years ago, if y'all had listened instead of playing politics.

1. Ah, that is the conundrum. Prove it.
2. It is? 2006 was cooler than 1998. In fact, every year after 1998 (the last El Nino) has been cooler. Did you notice? What happened to all the hurricanes that were supposed to follow after Katrina? If it warms again would you notice without AGW alarmists reminding you?

First-year physics students can tell us it's going to get hotter? Really? And there's something we can do about it? Freeman Dyson is not a first-year physics student, but has some interesting comments on this subject:
youtube.com/watch?v=JTSxubKfTBU

Has anyone here lived through the Dust Bowl era in the 1930's? What caused that?

My position is the science is not settled.
 
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The question was not concerning satellite temperature measurements, so can it be assumed your assertion is ground surface temperature measurements are questionable?
I'm not interested in one piece of evidence, I'm interested in fifty or sixty. I presented only the four most glaring ones. I notice you didn't answer my question.

I don't find ice shelf collapsing catastrophic, why do you?
This is the basic way skeptoids proceed.
1. It didn't happen.
2. It happened but it's not important.
You seem to have skipped a step.

So, if it happened, does that mean the Antarctic is getting warmer, or colder? This is how you deal with skeptoids, children: one step at a time. Either they go along, or you stop talking to them.

Actually the prediction is thirty years sooner.
So, basically what you're saying is because I used the median projections instead of the most pessimistic ones, I'm lying? Or perhaps you think it's a sign I'm being an alarmist.

I'll let you think about that a little while. I'm sure most people won't have to think about it for long.

I wasn't aware untested published predictions is considered science. Is that the “new” scientific method?
And I wasn't aware that denying or ignoring data that one doesn't like was considered science; nor that quoting out of context was considered either polite or logically rigorous. Silly me.

Why would the models need “correcting” if they are reliable?
Because your buddies over at Exxon have managed to stir up enough "doubt" that the scientists are being very cautious about what predictions they make; apparently so cautious that they overcompensated. Nice, manufacture a controversy and then blame the scientists for it. Good going. That's the way to get good science. Luckily it looks like some scientists just ignored it and kept on gathering data.

Thanks for pointing out that most egregious grammatical error. I assure you it was just an oversight. Had you not pointed that out there's no telling how much confusion would have ensued.
You're welcome. It does, however, tend to indicate a certain lack of rigor in your thought processes. It's rather disappointing to argue with someone who posts questions that are obvious lead-ins to a very sophisticated piece of public relations work, who doesn't know the difference between effect and affect. One kind of gets the impression one is arguing with the stereotypical basement dweller, no?

I asked a question. Obviously your contention is the sun (sun spots are but one)
Sunspots are an indicator of total solar activity; the more energy the Sun is putting out, the more likely it is to have sunspots. Or did you miss that lecture in solar astronomy class? Actually, I'm guessing you missed the entire class. Among numerous other things.

and cosmic influences have little effect on climate, correct?
"Cosmic influences?"

Whoopsie. I thought I was talking to someone who claims to be a skeptic. "Cosmic influences" is woo. That's called "astrology." I'm sure many here have seen it before.

Considering the sun is our only source of life sustaining heat, it's a bit absurd to discount in my humble opinion.
Yeah, too bad it's putting out less energy but it's still getting warmer; you don't have that crutch to lean on any more.

Now, you can find at RealClimate, this:
Cherry-picked "evidence" given all the weight it deserves.

Read the entire entry. To these guys, everything is “spin” that disagrees with their views.
Yeah, don't read any of the technical parts; they're "spin." Pay no attention to the man behind the curtain.

That was a response to Svensmark's theoretical work, including the usual empty rhetoric coming from RC. Now with the SKY experiment published in early 2007 to verify their (Svensmark et al) hypothesis, something CO2 AGW proponents have yet to demonstrate experimentally, RC is silent.
Heh, Svensmark managed to actually show something that refutes the RC analysis? Oh, right, he just showed more of the same stuff and you are claiming it refutes the RC analysis. Of course, we wouldn't want to actually read the RC analysis and observe that it doesn't, right? Pay no attention to the man behind the curtain.

As noted above, sunspots are not the only solar mechanisms affecting climate.
ROFFLMFAO! "...sunspots are not the only solar mechanisms affecting climate." Please show how sunspots affect the climate. More "cosmic influences," perhaps?

Also, from data I have been able to gather,
from sites populated by basement dwellers such as yourself
“average” (a misnomer) global temperatures have not risen since 1998, but actually are trending downward.
Unbelievable.

Fifty pieces of hard evidence- not models, data- all interlock and show exactly the same thing, but "from data [you] have been able to gather," they're all wrong.

Pull the other one.

Seeing how this is a thread about global warming, I assumed you would know climate sensitivity is referred to as the Greek symbol “lambda”.
Oh, really? Gee, that would imply I am a climatologist. Bzzzzzzt.

Climate sensitivity is perhaps at the core of the entire GW debate. Hansen, Annan, Stern, IPCC....all use their own value for lambda. Take your pick. If moderate climate change is not to your liking in the model, no problem. Just increase climate sensitivity up and viola!, instant doomsday, in 100 years of course. So, I ask again. What is the true value for lambda?
Like the variables in all scientific calculations, it is determined empirically. It also changes over time, which is also not uncommon, and from place to place on the Earth. Funny, temperature does that too. Gee, do you suppose that maybe you might need to use a different value for different empirically determined conditions? No, there has to be just ONE value, good for all times and places, and if teh evul AGW cunspirisy denies it, tehy are LYNIG!!!11!!one!

GCM is Global Circulation Model. How much evidence do you require?
None, just a definition instead of hyperbole.

Do you have evidence suggesting otherwise?
Yes, a great deal. Particularly considering that not a single one of the pieces you linked to can be confirmed as being written by an actual climatologist (the third doesn't exist as far as I can tell), the first doesn't state that GCMs are wrong, merely that they are only part of the picture, and the second, although it mentions and quotes a climatologist, isn't about GW predictions over decades but climate predictions year-to-year, and makes the tired old claim that year-to-year climate prediction accuracy of 50% is proof that "teh sciensetis don't knwo what their talking abuot."

Tell you what: present some actual evidence, and then we'll talk about mine; you made the implicit assertion they aren't accurate, you support it.

The climate has always changed. There will always be winners in some parts and losers in others. Why is this considered unusual?
Honestly, this instead of evidence? What do you do for an encore, gargle peanut butter?

1. Ah, that is the conundrum. Prove it.
I did. Not my problem if you weren't watching.

2. It is? 2006 was cooler than 1998. In fact, every year after 1998 (the last El Nino) has been cooler. Did you notice?
You mean, did I notice the graphs made from cherry-picked data that popped up all over the 'Net just about the time the producers of the TV program that spawned them were getting their heads handed to them by the authorities who license them to use the public airwaves in Britain? Yeah, I saw those graphs, compared them with the data, and dismissed them. You seem to have missed the actual data, and be relying on the graphs, on the other hand. Skeptoid is how I refer to that.

What happened to all the hurricanes that were supposed to follow after Katrina?
This reads like an Exxon talking points memo.

If it warms again would you notice without AGW alarmists reminding you?
Remember, if anyone says ANYTHING about AGW that supports it, they're an ALARMIST. Nice. I hear that peanut butter catching on your epiglottis a bit. Sure you don't need a little more of it?

First-year physics students can tell us it's going to get hotter? Really? And there's something we can do about it? Freeman Dyson is not a first-year physics student, but has some interesting comments on this subject:
youtube.com/watch?v=JTSxubKfTBU
And yet another non-climatologist is trotted out. Listen, skepticism is about examining the actual data; skeptoids never quite seem to get that. It is furthermore Dyson's position that he is a "heretic;" that is, he always likes to challenge the accepted wisdom. In this capacity, he provides a valuable counterpoint. However, he doesn't base this particular opinion on any data he can point to; and predictably, skeptoids latch onto his statements and blow them out of proportion. The beginning of his quote in an email interview here: "Climate change is a real problem, partly caused by human activities, but its importance has been grossly exaggerated.

"It is far less important than other social problems such as poverty, infectious diseases, deforestation, extinction of species on land and in the sea, not to mention war, nuclear weapons and biological weapons."

Emphasis mine. Nice little cherry-picking job. I suspect Dr. Dyson might have a thing or two to say to you about taking his words out of context, and offering them as proof that AGW isn't real or isn't happening. It would seem he just acknowledged that it is real and it is happening and it is at least partially our fault. Not bad, considering it doesn't appear he's taken the time to look over the instrumental evidence.

Has anyone here lived through the Dust Bowl era in the 1930's? What caused that?

My position is the science is not settled.
Your position is in the basement of mommy's house, whining on the 'Net about things that scare you so that you can pretend they don't exist.

"The science is not settled" != "nobody understands anything about climatology." Nor "we don't know enough to say it's getting warmer, and likely to continue," nor even "we don't know enough to say it's our fault," nor any of the other Exxon talking points you have spewed here.

Next.
 
Oh, and re: Svensmark, and cosmic rays being the cause of climate changes, see the following, written by one of the authors of the paper in question, and posted in the follow-ups in response to the RC article:

"Finally an opinion of my own: Press release or not, I am in no way out to attribute what has gone on in the last century solely to cosmic rays or anything else and I am certainly not out to belittle the effect of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. To me this is simply an interesting piece of science that looks like it could be another piece of the climate puzzle. If the size of this piece is big enough to make an impact on past, present or future climate is the subject of future research."

Yet another serious scientist whose research has been cherry-picked by the skeptoids.
 
I don't find ice shelf collapsing catastrophic, why do you?

The ice-shelves collapsed catastrophically. Catastrophes happen on all scales. Not that Schneibster used the term, but it was still a catastrophic collapse. Not in itself a global catastrophe, of course, and no doubt not a personal one for you. A catastrophic tyre-failure might be, though, providence forfend.

It's more a harbinger of catastrophe. And it's certainly evidence of something, not being an everyday occurrence.
 
Has anyone here lived through the Dust Bowl era in the 1930's? What caused that?

The North Atlantic Oscillation. That drought was not unusual, it was a recurrence of a 60-80 year regional cycle that is well represented in the historical record. The reason it led to dust-storms was the ploughing of the grasslands during the late-19th and early 20thCE. In previous droughts the grasses had anchored the soil, even when apparently withered. The expansion of farming - by Europeans, with European methods that were inappropriate in the medium-term - occurred between droughts when the incomers assumed that the prevailing wet conditions were constant. In reality, they weren't. When the rains didn't come - as they periodically don't - the ploughed land turned to dust because there was nothing to prevent it.

Had the region been left as pastureland, which is its natural state, there would have been no dust-bowl. As it was, unsustainable farming practices over a couple of generations turned a drought into a human disaster. It was the farmers' fault for assuming that the Great Plains were just like Western Europe, which they seemed to be in the short-term but weren't in the medium.
 
The North Atlantic Oscillation. That drought was not unusual, it was a recurrence of a 60-80 year regional cycle that is well represented in the historical record. The reason it led to dust-storms was the ploughing of the grasslands during the late-19th and early 20thCE. In previous droughts the grasses had anchored the soil, even when apparently withered. The expansion of farming - by Europeans, with European methods that were inappropriate in the medium-term - occurred between droughts when the incomers assumed that the prevailing wet conditions were constant. In reality, they weren't. When the rains didn't come - as they periodically don't - the ploughed land turned to dust because there was nothing to prevent it.

Had the region been left as pastureland, which is its natural state, there would have been no dust-bowl. As it was, unsustainable farming practices over a couple of generations turned a drought into a human disaster. It was the farmers' fault for assuming that the Great Plains were just like Western Europe, which they seemed to be in the short-term but weren't in the medium.

NASA has modeled the dust bowl.

Their model does not imply human behavior as causative. CP may well be correct, though: We can't put too much faith in computer models, right? We don't have a record from the Great Plains Indians of any such dust bowl phenomena.
 
NASA has modeled the dust bowl.

Their model does not imply human behavior as causative. CP may well be correct, though: We can't put too much faith in computer models, right? We don't have a record from the Great Plains Indians of any such dust bowl phenomena.

There are proxy-records, tree-rings and such, that indicate similar droughts in the past. They didn't lead to dust-storms because the soil remained anchored by grass. It was ploughing that left the dry soil exposed and liable to be blown about, and large-scale ploughing only started in the late 19thCE.

I don't have references to hand, I'm afraid, this is all from memory, but as I recall there were reports of a similar drought in the 1860's when the Great Plains were being used (if at all) as pastureland. It was only with the mass immigration from the 1880's onwards that arable farming was introduced there on a significant scale. Prior to that the Plains were a region that farmers crossed on the way to the west coast - on the legendary Oregon Trail, among others.
 
Great Plains agricultural productivity was greatly limited by drought cycles. Cape's memory is intact. Mine, not so much.

I seem to recall my father telling me the Dust Bowl of the '30s wasn't the worse drought to hit the region. He said sometime in the late 1800s a more severe drought cleaned out all of the farmers, and even threatened the Chicago feedlot cattle.

Cape's also right about the poor farming practices. With each drought, more top soil was lost to the wind.

The 'solution' was found in the early 20th Century when farmers first tapped the Great Plains aquifer.

That wasn't a wide practice until the Dust Bowl. The Ogallala Aquifer is one of the largest in the world and is responsible for the wheat and corn belt. It's fed the world (or at least Arthur Daniels Midland says it has) through eight decades of round-the-clock pumping.

Agriculture is our heaviest use of water, far surpassing metropolitan consumption. But the Ogallala serves both. Its recharge rate doesn't nearly equal the human drawndown.

The handwriting is on the silo. But conservation efforts and improvement in irrigation practices have only been able to slow its eventual depletion.

The time will come when agriculture in the Great Plains is again dependent on precipitation... barring of course some great leap in technology (I love those various water-from-air contraptions).


If I may include a brief political rant at this point -- what idiot decided it was a good idea to impact top soil and freshwater supplies to produce energy? Why grow biomass for energy on land that is capable of producing a food crop? It's not wise.
 
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