In 1997, following a Freedom of Information Act request by the Baltimore Sun newspaper, the CIA released two interrogation manuals, both of which explain the use of physical and psychological interrogation. The first manual is entitled: KUBARK, Counterintelligence Interrogation, dated July 1963.39 The second is dated 1983 and entitled: Human Resource Exploitation Training Manual.The latter manual explicitly refers to the ineffectiveness of coercion: ‘
Experience indicates that the use of force is not necessary to gain cooperation of sources. Use of force is a poor technique, yields unreliable results, may damage subsequent collection efforts, and can induce the source to say what he thinks the interrogator wants to hear.’ Notwithstanding this assertion, both manuals detail the use of psychological techniques and physical coercion that can be used to obtain ‘needed information from subjects.’
These manuals provide a useful means of assessing claims regarding the effectiveness of coercive interrogation. For example, to bolster their argument, Bagaric and Clarke state, ‘Humans have an intense desire to avoid pain, no matter how short term, and most will comply with the demands of a torturer to avoid the pain. Often even the threat of torture alone will evoke cooperation.
The CIA manuals by contrast, emphasize the limitations of coercive methods. The KUBARK manual states, ‘In fact, most people underestimate their capacity to withstand pain ... In general, direct physical brutality creates only resentment, hostility, and further defiance.’ The manual also notes that there are some people able to withstand pain to a much greater degree than others. Of particular relevance to a terrorist with deeply embedded religious or political beliefs, the manual states, ‘Persons of considerable moral or intellectual stature often find in pain inflicted by others a confirmation of the belief that they are in the hands of inferiors, and their resolve not to submit is strengthened.’ Both manuals emphasize the importance of creating rapport during interrogations and the need for control, professionalism, and patience on the part of the interrogator.
Another problem with coercive interrogation, which raises serious concerns regarding its reliability, is that of false confessions or information. The KUBARK manual makes specific reference to this problem:
Intense pain is quite likely to produce false confessions, concocted as a means of escaping from distress. A time-consuming delay results, while investigation is conducted and the admissions are proven untrue. During this respite the interrogatee can pull himself together. He may even use the time to think up new, more complex “admissions” that will take still longer to disprove. KUBARK is especially vulnerable to such tactics because the interrogation is conducted for the sake of information and not for police purposes.
